India and the Contemporary World - II Chapter 1: Rise of Nationalism in Europe

The Dream of Worldwide Democratic and Social Republics – The Pact Between Nations

• In 1848, Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four prints visualising his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic and social Republics’.
• The first print shows the peoples of Europe and America – men and women of all ages and social classes – marching in a long train, and offering homage to the Statue of Liberty.
• Liberty is personified as a female figure – holding the torch of Enlightenment in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.
• On the ground lie the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions.
• Peoples of the world are grouped as distinct nations, identified through their flags and national costume.
• United States and Switzerland lead the procession, followed by France with the revolutionary tricolour.
• Germany follows, bearing the black, red and gold flag, symbolising liberal hopes of unification under a democratic constitution.
• They are followed by Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia.
• From the heavens above, Christ, saints and angels gaze upon the scene, symbolising fraternity among the nations of the world.

The French Revolution and the Idea of Nation[Important]

French Revolutionaries introduced the following practices to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French citizens:-

• New tricolour flag replaced the old royal flag used by French monarchy.
• Establishment of a centralised administrative system with uniform laws for all citizens.
• New hymns were composed and oaths were taken.
• Martyrs(Saheed) were remembered in the name of the nation.(saheedon ko samaneet kya gaya)
• Estate general elected by the body of citizens was renamed to National Assembly.
• Uniform system of weights and measurements were adopted.
• Ideas of la patrie and le citoyen of a united community with equal rights under a constitution was promoted.

Napoleonic Code[Important]

Key points to remember

In 1804, Napoleon introduced Napoleonic code(Also known as Civil Code of 1804).

Features of Napoleonic Code

• It removed all privileges by birth.
• Established equality before law.
• Secured the Right to Property.
• Simplified administrative systems in Dutch republic, Switzerland, Italy and Germany.
• Abolished the Feudal System.
• Abolished guild restrictions in the town areas.
• Freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
• Transport and Communication systems were improved.
• Established uniform laws, standardized weights and measures and common national currency which facilitated the movement of goods from one place to another.

The ideology of Liberalism(Latin Word: Liber, Meaning: Free)

Political aspects

• Demanded a government elected by the people.
• All adult citizens who are able to pay taxes should have the right to vote (They were against the voting rights for women and poor men).
• Were against the monarchy rule and ending all clerical privileges.
• They supported the parliamentary form of governance.

Economic aspects

• Freedom of markets
• Abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movement of goods.
• Demanded for a uniform weights and measurement systems.

In 1834, a Customs Union or Zollverein was formed which abolished tariff barriers and reduced the numbers of currencies from over thirty to two.

Treaty of Vienna [Important]

• Representatives of Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria met in Vienna after defeating Napoleon.
• Hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.
• Objective: Undo changes brought by the Napoleonic Wars.
• Features of this Treaty
• Bourbon dynasty restored in France.
• Monarchies overthrown by Napoleon were restored.
• France lost its territories annexed during the leadership of Napoleon.

Buffer states created to prevent French expansion:

• Kingdom of the Netherlands (including Belgium) in the north.
• Genoa added to Piedmont in the south.

Territorial rewards:

• Prussia gained new western territories.
• Austria got control over northern Italy.
• Russia received part of Poland.
• Prussia gained part of Saxony.
• German Confederation (39 states) created by Napoleon was left untouched.

Conservative Order and Censorship

• A new conservative order was established.
• Autocratic regimes suppressed criticism and dissent.
• Strict censorship laws imposed on newspapers, books, plays, and songs.
• Despite repression, French Revolution ideals continued to inspire liberals.
• Freedom of the press became a major demand of liberal-nationalists.

The Aristocracy and the new middle class

• The aristocracy was a dominant class in Europe.
• Owned estates and townhouses.
• They spoke French.
• They were connected by marriage.
• However, they were a small group.
• The majority of the population consisted of peasantry.
• Industrialization led to:
• Growth of towns and commercial classes.
• Emergence of a working-class population.
• Rise of middle classes, including industrialists, businessmen, and professionals.
• In Central and Eastern Europe, these groups remained smaller until the late 19th century.

The Age of Revolutions

July Revolution (France, 1830)

• Bourbon monarchy overthrown by liberal revolutionaries.
• Louis Philippe installed as constitutional monarch.
• Impact: Inspired uprising in Brussels, leading to Belgium’s independence from the Netherlands.

Metternich’s quote: "When France sneezes, Europe catches cold."

Greek Struggle for Independence

• Ottoman Empire captured Greece in the mid-fourteenth century.
• In 1821, Greeks fought for their independence. Many people supported their cause.
• Lord Byron (English poet) funded and fought in the war; died in 1824.
• In 1832, with the Treaty of Constantinople Greece attained its independence and became a country.

Romanticism [Important]

The Massacre at Chios, Eugene Delacroix, 1824

• Romanticism is a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment.
• Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science and focused instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.
• Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.
• The German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people – das volk.
• It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation (volksgeist) was popularised.

CASE OF POLAND

Partition of Poland: In the 18th century, Russia, Prussia, and Austria divided Poland, ending its independence.

Role of Music:

• Karol Kurpinski promoted nationalism through operas and music.
• Folk dances like polonaise and mazurka became nationalist symbols.

Impact of Russian Occupation:

• Polish language banned in schools, Russian imposed everywhere.
• 1831 Rebellion against Russian rule was crushed.

Role of the Church:

• Clergy resisted by using Polish in Church gatherings and religious instruction.
• Russian authorities punished priests and bishops by jailing or exiling them to Siberia.

Language as Resistance:

• Using Polish became a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.

Economic Hardship in 1830s Europe

• Sharp population growth led to job scarcity.
• Rural to urban migration caused overcrowded slums.
• Small producers faced competition from cheap English machine-made goods.
• Textile production was partly mechanised and home-based.
• Peasants suffered under feudal dues in aristocratic regions.
• Food price rise or bad harvests caused mass poverty.

Liberal Revolutions of 1848 [ Frankfurt Parliament]

Frankfurt Parliament was the first freely elected all-German national assembly, formed in May 1848 during the liberal revolutions across Europe.

Where: Convened in the Church of St. Paul, Frankfurt.

Who: Composed of 831 elected representatives, mainly from the middle class – professionals, businessmen, and artisans.

Aim: To draft a constitution for a unified German nation based on liberal and constitutional principles.

Key Proposals:

• A constitutional monarchy
• A parliamentary system
• Fundamental rights, including freedom of press and association

However:

• The crown was offered to King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia, who rejected it, unwilling to accept a crown from the people.
• The parliament lacked support from workers and faced opposition from monarchy and military.
• It eventually failed and was disbanded by force.

Revolutions of 1848[Events in France]

• Paris uprising due to food shortage & unemployment.
• Louis Philippe fled; barricades were erected.
• Republic proclaimed by National Assembly.
• Suffrage to all adult males (21+)
• Right to work guaranteed
• National workshops set up for employment

Women in Liberal Revolutions

• Women actively participated in liberal movements during the 1848 revolutions.
• They formed political associations, started newspapers, and took part in rallies and meetings.
• Despite their involvement, they were denied voting rights and excluded from formal political processes.
• In the Frankfurt Parliament, women were only allowed as observers in the visitors' gallery.
• The demand for women’s political rights remained unfulfilled.

Aftermath of 1848 Revolutions

• Though liberal revolutions were suppressed, monarchs couldn’t fully restore the old order.
• Rulers began to realise the need for liberal reforms to avoid repeated unrest.

Concessions granted:

• Serfdom and bonded labour abolished in the Habsburg Empire and Russia.
• In 1867, Hungarians were granted autonomy within the Habsburg Empire.

The ideas of liberalism and nationalism continued to influence future movements across Europe.

A short note Giuseppe Mazzini [Important]

• Born in Genoa, 1807.
• Former member of a secret society Carbonari.
• He was sent to exile after attempting a failed revolution in Liguria.
• Founded two secret societies
• Young Italy -Marseilles
• Young Europe - Berne
• He believed the nations were intended by God to be natural units of humanity.
• Duke Metternich, Former Chancellor of Austria described him as "the most dangerous enemy of the social order."

Unification of Germany[Important]

• Germany was divided into 39 confederations by Napoleon Bonaparte.
• In 1834, a Customs Union or Zollverein was formed which abolished tariff barriers and reduced the numbers of currencies from over thirty to two. This unified the German estates Economically.
• Later, in 1848, the middle class tried to unite the different regions in the German confederation into a nation state governed by an elected parliament headed by the king.
• These efforts faced strong opposition from the monarchy, military and landowners(Junkers) in Prussia.
• Friderich Wilhelm IV of Prussia used the military and forcefully disbanded the assembly.
• After this failed attempt Otto Von Bismarck the chief minister of Prussia used the military and bureaucracy with an aim to achieve German Unification.
• Three battles were fought over seven years with Austria, France and Denmark where Prussia emerged victorious.
• In January 1871, Kaiser William I, the King of Prussia, was declared the Emperor of Unified Germany in a ceremony held at the Palace of Versailles.

Unification of Italy

Background

• Italy was divided into seven states in the 19th century.
• North: Controlled by Austrian Habsburgs
• Centre: Under Pope’s rule
• South: Dominated by Spanish Bourbon kings
• Only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house.
• Italian language had regional variations, not yet unified.

Early Efforts

• 1830s: Giuseppe Mazzini launched a programme for a unified Italian Republic.
• Founded the secret society Young Italy.
• Revolts in 1831 & 1848 failed, so leadership passed to Sardinia-Piedmont under King Victor Emmanuel II.

Role of Cavour

• Chief Minister Cavour was a strategist, not a revolutionary.
• Engineered a diplomatic alliance with France.
• 1859: Sardinia-Piedmont defeated Austria with French help.

Role of Garibaldi

• 1860: Garibaldi led volunteers to liberate South Italy and the Kingdom of Two Sicilies.
• Gained support of local peasants, expelled Spanish rulers.

Timeline of Events

Strange case of Britain

Background

• Pre-18th century: No unified British nation. People identified as English, Welsh, Scots, or Irish, with separate cultural and political traditions.
• The idea of a British nation-state developed gradually over time, not through a single revolution or upheaval.

Role of England

• As England grew in wealth and power, it extended influence over the other nations of the British Isles.
• English Parliament played a crucial role after 1688, when it seized power from the monarchy and began forming the British nation-state with England at the center.

Key Acts and Events

• 1707: Act of Union created the United Kingdom of Great Britain, uniting England and Scotland.
• England dominated the British Parliament, and Scottish culture and political institutions were suppressed.
• Scottish Gaelic language and traditional dress were banned, and Highland clans faced repression.

Capturing Ireland

• Ireland was divided between Catholics and Protestants, with Protestants supported by England.
• After the 1798 revolt led by Wolfe Tone's United Irishmen, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
• A British identity was propagated through English culture, including the Union Jack, God Save the King, and the English language.
• Scotland and Ireland became subordinate partners within the British Union, with their cultures marginalized.

Visualising the Nation

Personification of Nations in Art

• In the 18th and 19th centuries, artists personified nations by representing them as female figures to give an abstract concept a concrete form.
• Female allegories were used to represent the nation rather than a specific woman, becoming symbolic representations of the country.
• During the French Revolution, female allegories like Liberty, Justice, and the Republic were depicted using specific symbols:
• Liberty: Red cap, broken chains
• Justice: Blindfolded woman with weighing scales
• Marianne personified France.
• She symbolized a people's nation with characteristics like the red cap, tricolour, and cockade.
• Statues of Marianne were placed in public squares, and her image appeared on coins and stamps.
• Germania became the allegory of the German nation, often depicted wearing a crown of oak leaves, symbolizing heroism.

Attribute	Significance
Broken chains	Being freed
Breastplate with eagle	Symbol of the German empire - strength
Crown of oak leaves	Heroism
Sword	Readiness to fight
Olive branch around the sword	Willingness to make peace
Black, red and gold tricolour	Flag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848, banned by the Dukes of the German states
Rays of the rising sun	Beginning of a new era

Nationalism and Imperialism

I. Nationalism in the Late 19th Century and the Balkans

• Nationalism turned from liberal-democratic ideals to narrow, aggressive ambitions.
• Nationalist groups became intolerant, often leading to conflict and war.
• Major powers exploited nationalism for imperialist goals.
• The Balkans became the most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871.
• Region comprised modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.
• Inhabitants broadly known as Slavs, most of the region was under the Ottoman Empire.
• Romantic nationalism and the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made the Balkans very explosive.
• Balkan nationalities used history to prove their past independence and viewed struggles as efforts to win back long-lost independence.
• Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other, hoping to gain more territory.
• Rivalries among Balkan states and interference from European powers (Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary) escalated tensions.
• This rivalry and territorial ambitions led to frequent wars and ultimately led to World War I.

II. Nationalism and Anti-Imperial Movements Worldwide

• Nationalism, aligned with imperialism, led Europe to disaster in 1914.
• In the meantime, many countries colonised by European powers in the 19th century began to oppose imperial domination.
• These anti-imperial movements were nationalist, aiming to form independent nation-states.
• They were driven by a sense of collective national unity, forged in confrontation with imperialism.
• Though inspired by Europe, European ideas of nationalism were nowhere replicated.
• Societies developed their own specific variety of nationalism.
• The concept that societies should be organised into ‘nation-states’ became seen as natural and universal.